Silvia de Freitas Affonso Franco*
silviafafranco@gmail.com
Helen Feitosa Pinheiro Machado**
fisiohelenpinheiro@gmail.com

Maria Clara Salgado Ramos***
mariaclarasalgadoramos@gmail.com

Valter da Rocha Fernandes+
capoeiracurumim@hotmail.com

Thiago Teixeira Guimarães++
thiagotguimaraes@yahoo.com.br

Andrea Camaz Deslandes+++
adeslandes@ipub.ufrj.br

*Doctoranda y Máster en Ciencias del Ejercicio y del Deporte

por la Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ)

Graduada en Educación Física

Investigadora del Laboratorio de Neurociencia del Ejercicio (LaNEx/UFRJ)

**Fisioterapeuta graduada

por la Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ)

Estudiante de posgrado en Terapia Intensiva de Adultos

Fisioterapeuta del CTI del Hospital Glória D’Or

Fisioterapeuta de guardia en el CTI del Hospital MedSênior

***Terapeuta Ocupacional y Nutricionista

Estudiante de Máster del Programa de Posgrado

en Ciencias Médicas (PGCM) de la UERJ

+Doctor en Salud Mental por el IPUB/UFRJ

Máster en Educación Física por la UFRJ

Maestro de Capoeira, creador y director técnico del proyecto

Capoeira Cidadã y de la Escola Capoeira Cidadã

Miembro del Laboratorio de Neurociencia del Ejercicio (LaNEx/UFRJ)

++Profesor del Programa de Posgrado en Ciencias de la Actividad Física

y de los cursos de grado en Medicina y Educación Física

de la Universidade Salgado de Oliveira (UNIVERSO)

Doctor en Ciencias del Ejercicio y del Deporte por la UERJ

Máster en Educación Física por la UFRJ

+++Graduada en Educación Física, Máster

y Doctora en Salud Mental por la UFRJ

con posdoctorado en Epidemiología

y Métodos Cuantitativos por la ENSP/Fiocruz

Profesora del Instituto de Psiquiatría de la UFRJ

Coordinadora del Laboratorio de Neurociencia del Ejercicio (LaNEx/UFRJ)

(Brasil)

Reception: 04/27/2026 - Acceptance: 09/19/2026

1st Review: 08/31/2026 - 2nd Review: 09/06/2026

Accessible document. Law N° 26.653. WCAG 2.0

Suggested reference: Franco, S. de F.A., Machado, H.F.P., Fernandes, V. da R., Guimarães, T.T., & Deslandes, A.C. (2026). School-based Physical Education does not Acutely Impair Executive Functions in Children. A Randomized Controlled Trial. Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, 31(342), 46-63. https://doi.org/10.46642/efd.v31i342.8857

 

Abstract

    Engaging in physical activity stimulates brain regions associated with executive functions. However, evidence regarding the acute effects of school-based Physical Education remains inconsistent, particularly when considering class duration and ecological constraints of the school context. Given that Physical Education classes may vary in length due to routine school demands, the present study aimed to investigate the acute effect of two durations of Physical Education class (25 and 45 minutes) on the executive functions of 9- to 10-year-old children. Twenty-four participants (age = 9.54 years ± 0.51; male = 62.5 %) were randomized and allocated in 3 groups (25 minutes PE, 45 minutes PE and control group). The exercise groups participated in traditional Physical Education classes (25-minute session and 45-minute session). Meanwhile, the control group attended a 45-minute theoretical class. All individuals underwent executive functions assessments before and immediately after their respective conditions. A significant main effect of time was observed for response time in inhibitory control (F(1,21) = 12.719; p = 0.002), with improvements occurring across all groups, including the control group. No other significant effects were identified, indicating that Physical Education class duration did not modulate executive function performance. When assessed immediately after the class, Physical Education sessions lasting 25 or 45 minutes did not produce acute improvements in inhibitory control or working memory in 9- to 10-year-old schoolchildren, and no dose–response effect was observed. Nevertheless, executive function performance was maintained, indicating that participation in Physical Education during the school day does not compromise children’s cognitive functioning.

    Keywords: Cognition. Executive function. Working memory. Exercise.

 

Resumo

    A prática de atividade física estimula funções executivas, mas as evidências sobre os efeitos agudos da Educação Física escolar permanecem inconsistentes devido às variações na duração das aulas e restrições da rotina escolar. Este estudo investigou e comparou o efeito agudo de duas durações distintas de aulas (25 e 45 minutos) sobre o desempenho cognitivo em crianças de 9 a 10 anos. Vinte e quatro participantes (9,54 ± 0,51 anos; 62,5 % masculinos) foram randomizados em três grupos: aulas tradicionais de Educação Física de 25 minutos, de 45 minutos e um grupo controle (aula teórica de 45 minutos). A avaliação das funções executivas, realizada antes e imediatamente após cada condição, revelou um efeito principal significativo de tempo no tempo de resposta do controle inibitório (F(1,21) = 12,719; p = 0,002), com melhorias generalizadas em todos os grupos, incluindo o controle. Não foram identificados outros efeitos significativos, demonstrando que a duração da aula não modulou o desempenho cognitivo. Sessões de 25 ou 45 minutos não geraram melhorias agudas no controle inibitório ou na memória de trabalho em escolares, tampouco demonstraram efeito de dose-resposta. Apesar disso, a manutenção do desempenho confirma que a participação nas aulas de Educação Física durante a rotina escolar não compromete as funções executivas dos estudantes.

    Unitermos: Cognição. Função executiva. Memória de trabalho. Exercício físico.

 

Resumen

    La práctica de actividad física estimula las funciones ejecutivas, pero la evidencia sobre los efectos agudos de la Educación Física escolar sigue siendo inconsistente debido a las variaciones en la duración de las clases y las restricciones de la rutina escolar. Este estudio investigó y comparó el efecto agudo de dos duraciones distintas de clases (25 y 45 minutos) sobre el rendimiento cognitivo en niños de 9 a 10 años. Veinticuatro participantes (9,54 ± 0,51 años; 62,5 % masculinos) fueron aleatorizados en tres grupos: clases tradicionales de Educación Física de 25 minutos, de 45 minutos y un grupo control (clase teórica de 45 minutos). La evaluación de las funciones ejecutivas, realizada antes e inmediatamente después de cada condición, reveló un efecto principal significativo de tiempo en el tiempo de respuesta del control inhibitorio (F(1,21) = 12,719; p = 0,002), con mejoras generalizadas en todos los grupos, incluido el control. No se identificaron otros efectos significativos, lo que demuestra que la duración de la clase no moduló el rendimiento cognitivo. Las sesiones de 25 o 45 minutos no generaron mejoras agudas en el control inhibitorio ni en la memoria de trabajo en escolares, tampoco demostraron un efecto de dosis-respuesta. A pesar de esto, el mantenimiento del rendimiento confirma que la participación en las clases de Educación Física durante la rutina escolar no compromete las funciones ejecutivas de los estudiantes.

    Palabras clave: Cognición. Función ejecutiva. Memoria de trabajo. Ejercicio físico.

 

Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, Vol. 31, Núm. 342, Nov. (2026)

---

 

Introduction 

 

    It is well-known that the development of a child's motor system occurs simultaneously with the development of the cognitive system, making these two aspects of child development fundamentally interconnected (Diamond, 2000). A growing body of literature has investigated the relationship between fitness skills and cognition in school-aged children, showing an intrinsic correlation between better fitness skills and enhanced performances in executive functions (Fernandes et al., 2024; Fernandes et al., 2016). Executive functions are a set of cognitive skills essential for performing various activities that require planning and monitoring, enabling individuals to interact with the world in a more adaptive manner (Baggetta, & Alexander, 2016). They are considered fundamental not only for guiding and regulating cognitive abilities (Diamond, & Ling, 2016) but also for socio-emotional skills (Moffitt et al., 2011). Executive functions have three main core pillars: inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Diamond, 2013). These functions, primarily controlled and guided by the prefrontal cortex (PFC), can exhibit temporary improvement even after a single session of physical activity, highlighting an acute effect, (Anzeneder et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2014)

 

    In the past decade, there has been an exponential increase in scientific research investigating the impact of a single session of physical activity on cognitive performance (Pontifex et al., 2019). This growing interest reflects the increasing recognition that exercise can influence cognitive processes through multiple neurophysiological and psychological mechanisms (Horn, & Smith, 2018). Although several studies have reported positive effects, the evidence remains inconsistent (Donnelly et al., 2016). Such inconsistency may be explained by methodological heterogeneity across studies, including differences in participant’s age, baseline cognitive performance, physical activity characteristics (e.g., intensity, duration, and cognitive engagement), executive function subdomains assessed, and the timing of post-exercise cognitive evaluations.

 

    Pontifex and colleagues (2019) have shown that most studies examining the acute effects of physical activity on cognition in children have focused predominantly on aerobic interventions. However, in recent years, researchers have begun to investigate which characteristics of physical activity are associated with greater cognitive improvements. More recent evidence suggests that cognitive responses are influenced not only by the quantity of physical activity (e.g., duration or intensity) but also by its qualitative characteristics, such as cognitive engagement and task complexity. According to a meta-review (Pesce et al., 2021), physical activity interventions may differ in their cognitive impact depending on whether they emphasize the quantity of physical activity (e.g., extended, expanded, or enhanced physical activity), the quality of physical activity (e.g., cognitively enriched activities), or a joint focus on quality and quantity. Recent research has reinforced this perspective by demonstrating that the acute cognitive response to physical activity is influenced by multiple intervention characteristics, including exercise duration, intensity, type, and cognitive engagement. These findings suggest that methodological differences between studies may partly explain the heterogeneous effects reported in the literature, (Hatch, 2022; Martins et al., 2022)

 

    Moreover, a significant number of studies published in this field have been conducted in laboratory settings, using specialized instruments and experimental procedures that are incompatible with the reality of the school environment (Morris et al., 2019; Robbins et al., 2010). To address this issue, it is necessary to implement physical activities as interventions that either use common school equipment or require no equipment at all (Cooper et al., 2016). Unlike laboratory studies, where environments are rigidly controlled and few elements fall outside the researchers' control, a research setup within the school environment introduces variability and allows for an analysis of the actual circumstances surrounding this setting (Morris et al., 2019). These considerations highlight the complexity of the acute relationships between exercise and cognition and reinforce the need for ecologically valid studies conducted in school settings.

 

    Aiming to address gaps related to physical activity duration and the ecological validity of experimental procedures, the present study investigated the acute effects of two Physical Education class durations (25 and 45 minutes) on inhibitory control and working memory in 9- to 10-year-old children, hypothesizing that participation in Physical Education would enhance executive function performance compared to a control condition, with greater improvements expected following the longer-duration session.

 

Methods 

 

Study design and participants 

 

    This is a randomized controlled clinical trial whose ethical approval was granted by the Research Ethics Committee of Estácio de Sá University, where the study was registered at the time of data collection, under the registration number CAAE: 96566818.8.0000.5284. All procedures were conducted and reported in accordance with CONSORT guidelines (Hopewell et al., 2025). However, no blinding procedure was used for the evaluators. The sample size was estimated using the statistical software G*Power 3.1.9.7, based on the results reported by a pilot study found in the literature (Cooper et al., 2016). The analysis indicated that a total of 18 participants would be needed to achieve statistical representativeness, with a power of 0.95 and an effect size of 0.72.

 

    The sample consisted of 9- to 10-year-old individuals of both sexes. Exclusion criteria included diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorders, and the presence of uncorrected auditory or visual impairments, including color blindness. Participants were required to have the Consent Form and the Assent Form signed by their legal guardians and by the participants themselves, respectively. The research was conducted at a private educational institution located in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

 

Procedure 

 

    The first stage of the study consisted of disseminating information about the research within the school and inviting all students from two 4th-grade classes to participate. Students who agreed to participate had their academic performance assessed using school grades. Academic performance and sex were used for group matching prior to randomization. After matching, students were randomly allocated to a control group (CG) or an exercise group (EG) using a randomization procedure generated in Microsoft Excel®. All eligible participants underwent anthropometric assessments to characterize the sample.

 

    The intervention took place during the final visit to each class. The EG participated in a Physical Education class, while the CG attended a theoretical Physical Education class. Executive function assessments were administered before and immediately after each condition. Post-intervention assessments were initiated as soon as possible after the session, requiring only the time needed to move the children to the assessment room, which did not exceed five minutes.

 

    Participants were assessed according to their regular school schedule, with one class evaluated in the morning and the other in the afternoon. Figure 1 illustrates the chronological sequence of matching, randomization, and intervention procedures.

 

Source: Prepared by the authors

 

Intervention 

 

    The CG attended a 45-minute theoretical Physical Education class consisting of educational videos about basketball rules and games. Students remained seated throughout the session, with minimal interaction. No physical activity was performed, and the cognitive demand for the task was low. As both classes completed the same control condition, their data were combined into a single CG.

 

    The EG participated in a Physical Education class taught by the school’s regular teacher and conducted according to the school curriculum, with the requirement that all activities involved cognitive engagement. The session comprised three activities, two of which were basketball-related. Following the framework proposed by Pesce et al. (2021), the class was designed as an enriched physical activity session, characterized by the integration of motor and cognitive demands. Activities included a warm-up chasing game, basketball skill tasks (e.g., dribbling with dominant and non-dominant hands, passing, and shooting), and a basketball game with rules adapted and created by the children. Two different class durations were implemented due to routine organizational constraints within the school schedule, resulting in Physical Education sessions lasting either 25 or 45 minutes. This allowed the examination of potential dose–response effects of cognitively engaging physical activity on executive function performance. Thus, within the EG, there were two subgroups: EG with 25 minutes and EG with 45 minutes.

 

    Immediately after both the Physical Education class and the theoretical lesson, children were escorted to quiet assessment rooms for post-intervention cognitive testing. Executive function assessments lasted approximately 10 minutes.

 

Instruments 

 

    Stroop Task 

 

    The Stroop task (Stroop, 1935) is a widely used measure of inhibitory control and selective attention (Diamond, 2013; Strauss et al., 2006). The task consists of three stages with increasing cognitive demand, using color words presented in different formats. In the first two stages, the stimuli are congruent, whereas in the third stage, color words are printed in incongruent ink colors. Participants are instructed to always name the ink color.

 

    The task was administered using printed cards and a stopwatch. Performance was assessed based on response time (RT) and number of errors, with lower values indicating better performance. The Stroop effect was calculated as the difference in RT between the third (incongruent) and the first (congruent) stages.

 

    Digit Span Test 

 

    The Digit Span Test is a subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, fourth edition (WISC-IV), used to assess short-term memory and working memory (Wechsler, 2003). It consists of two stages: forward (DST-F) and backward (DST-B). In DST-F, the individual repeats number sequences in the same order in which they are presented to test immediate memory. The task includes different number sequences that vary in length, progressively increasing in difficulty. In DST-B, the individual must repeat the number sequences in reverse order, thus testing working memory.

 

    This instrument was administered using a printed evaluation sheet. The scores from both stages were summed to obtain the total score. The higher the result in this evaluation, the better the individual's performance.

 

Anthropometric evaluation 

 

    Body mass was measured using a scale, and height was measured with a stadiometer fixed to the wall. The body mass index (BMI) was also calculated.

 

Statistical analysis 

 

    To assess the normality and homoscedasticity of the variables, the Shapiro-Wilk test and the Levene’s test were applied, respectively. Descriptive data were presented as mean and standard deviation for parametric variables, and median, minimum, and maximum for non-parametric variables. One-way ANOVA (parametric variables) and the Kruskal-Wallis’s test (non-parametric variables) were used to compare the three groups (25 min physical activity, 45 min physical activity, and control group) at baseline. Additionally, a two-way ANOVA (parametric data) and the Kruskal-Wallis’s test (non-parametric data) were conducted to compare the variables investigated among groups (control vs. 25 min vs. 45 min) and moments (pre vs. post). The JASP version 0.19.1.0 was used for the analysis, and the significance level adopted in the study was p ≤ 0.05.

 

Results 

 

    Of the 31 children invited to participate in the study, four were excluded because they declined to participate. After the pairing and randomization process, the EG included 14 children, while the CG included 13 children. Three children were excluded from the study due to absence on the intervention day, resulting in a final sample of 24 9- to 10-year-old children. One of the Physical Education classes had to be interrupted, and because of that the EG was divided into two new subgroups: the 25-minute EG (8 children) and the 45-minute EG (6 children). The CG remained unchanged, as both classes completed the same amount of time for the control activity. Of the 24 children included, 9 were female (37.5 %), and 15 were male (62.5 %). A flowchart summarizing the subject selection process is provided below (Figure 2).

 

Source: Prepared by the authors

 

    In the descriptive analysis of the sample depicted in Table 1, it is evident that the three groups showed no significant differences in either the sample characterization variables or the cognitive variables at baseline.

 

	Exercise Group - 25 min	Exercise Group - 45 min	Control Group	X	p
	n = 8	n = 6	n = 10
Age (years) b	9 (9 − 10)	10 (9 − 10)	10 (9 − 10)	1.351	0.509
Male c	5 (62.5 %)	4 (66.7 %)	6 (60.0 %)	1.5	0.221
Weight (kg) a	37.01 ± 9.27	51.03 ± 16.84	45.18 ± 15.61	1.748	0.198
Height (cm) b	135.75 (133.50 − 146.60)	144.35 (142.10 − 146.70)	140.55 (136.70 − 160.20)	5.794	0.055
BMI (kg/m²) a	19.21 ± 4.14	24.35 ± 7.45	21.45 ± 5.94	1.329	0.286
Stroop 3 RT (s) a	32.60 ± 7.42	31.78 ± 7.80	29.65 ± 9.66	0.286	0.754
Stroop 3 Errors b	0.5 (0 − 7)	1.5 (0 − 6)	2 (0 − 6)	1482.0	0.477
Stroop Effect (s) a	11.47 ± 7.44	11.79 ± 4.69	11.67 ± 6.69	0.004	0.996
DST-F a	7.88 ± 2.03	7.67 ± 1.37	8.50 ± 1.96	0.451	0.643
DST-B a	5.50 ± 1.69	5.17 ± 1.17	5.20 ± 0.92	0.160	0.853
DST Total Score a	13.38 ± 3.02	12.83 ± 1.72	13.70 ± 2.21	0.241	0.788

a = one-way Anova (mean ± SD); b = Kruskal-Wallis (median. Minimum - maximum); c = Chi-square (n, %); BMI = Body mass index; RT = Response time; DST-F = Digit Span Test Forward; DST-B = Digit Span Test Backward; DST = Digit Span Test; * p ≤ 0.05. Source: Authors

 

    A comparative analysis was conducted to evaluate the effect of physical activity on the primary cognitive variables across the three groups. The results of the Stroop task indicated a significant main effect for time in the RT of the third stage of the test (F(1,21) = 12.719; p = 0.002), suggesting a difference between pre- and post-intervention moments across groups. Observing the descriptive data, an improvement in inhibitory control performance was noted in both the Exercise Groups (EGs) and CG, evidenced by a reduction in RT in the post-intervention moment (Stroop 3 RT: CG: 25.09 ± 5.95; 25-minute EG: 27.23 ± 6.98; 45-minute EG: 28.08 ± 9.13). For the RT in the third stage of the Stroop test, no significant main effects were observed for group (F(2,21) = 0.359; p = 0.703) or time x group interaction (F(2,21) = 0.130; p = 0.878). No other significant effects were identified for the remaining variables (all p > 0.05). Descriptive changes across pre- and post-intervention are presented in Figure 3.

 

Source: Authors

 

Discussion 

 

    The present study aimed to investigate the acute effects of two Physical Education class durations (25 and 45 minutes) on inhibitory control and working memory in 9- to 10-year-old children. Considering the dose–response perspective, it was hypothesized that children exposed to the longer Physical Education session would demonstrate greater improvements in executive function performance than those exposed to the shorter session, and that both exercise groups would outperform the control group. However, this hypothesis was not supported. No significant effects between physical activity durations were observed for inhibitory control or working memory. Importantly, all groups, including the control group, showed faster RT in Stroop 3, suggesting a general improvement over time. These findings contribute to the ongoing debate regarding the dose–response relationship between acute physical activity and executive functions in children. Recent investigations have likewise reported that exercise duration alone does not consistently determine cognitive outcomes, highlighting the influence of other methodological factors, such as exercise modality, intensity, and assessment timing. (Hatch, 2022; Martins et al., 2022)

 

    The current results align with those of Van Den Berg et al. (2018) and Bedard et al. (2021), who also found no significant effects of physical activity on the executive functions of children. The first study was also conducted in a school setting, with children aged 11 to 14 who completed 10, 20, and 30 minutes of physical activity, and similarly reported no differences compared to the control group or between exercise durations. The Bedard study, which involved children aged 6 to 8, also found no significant results after a session of cognitively engaging physical activity. The present findings are also consistent with Pirrie and Lodewyk (2012), who did not identify significant effects on inhibitory control after a 45-minute session of physical activity. In contrast, some studies have reported improved inhibitory control after single sessions of exercise (Hammami et al., 2023; Lind et al., 2019; Niemann et al., 2013), but all of them used computerized cognitive assessments, unlike the present study, which employed paper-and-pencil tasks.

 

    Working memory performance did not show any acute effect of physical activity in the present study, a result that aligns with studies that used the same assessment tool and found no significant results (Howie et al., 2015; Morris et al., 2019). Other tools for assessing working memory have also been used in studies that did not achieve their objectives, such as the n-back test. (Drollette et al., 2012; Soga et al., 2015)

 

    Another important factor to consider is the timing for starting the post-assessment. In the present study, cognitive assessments were initiated immediately after the physical activity session, but studies in the literature that evaluated with more than five minutes of delay showed significant results for the effect of physical activity on executive functions (Chen et al., 2014; Drollette et al., 2012; Niemann et al., 2013). Although meta-analyses have suggested that the most pronounced cognitive benefits may occur when executive functions are assessed approximately 15 minutes after the end of physical activity (Chang et al., 2012; Lambourne, & Tomporowski, 2010), nearly 50% of the published studies analyzed the effect immediately after, making it risky to compare these results due to the difference in publication volume. (Donnelly et al., 2016)

 

    Although no acute positive effects of physical activity on executive functions were found, children also did not exhibit any decline in cognitive performance following the Physical Education class. Children who engaged in 25 and 45 minutes of physical activity did not perform worse than those who remained seated in the classroom watching a video. These findings are consistent with systematic reviews and meta-analyses indicating that acute physical activity does not impair attentional levels or cognitive performance in children (Daly-Smith et al., 2018; Donnelly et al., 2016; Li et al., 2017). From an educational perspective, this finding is particularly relevant, as it suggests that participation in Physical Education classes does not compromise students’ cognitive functioning immediately afterward. Moreover, many adaptations in response to physical activity occur chronically, through the accumulation of various acute stimuli.

 

    Even if no acute effect is observed, the long-term practice of physical activity contributes to improved learning and executive functions in children and adolescents (Benzing et al., 2019; Erwin et al., 2012). Therefore, the implementation of physical activity in daily school routines can enhance students’ cognitive performance and physical fitness (Donnelly et al., 2016). These findings are crucial for addressing the low levels of physical activity in schools (Erwin et al., 2012) and fostering discussions about the importance of transforming this scenario.

 

    The unpredictability inherent to the school environment represents a limitation of this study. Another limitation is that individual levels of cognitive engagement during the Physical Education activities were not directly measured. Additionally, two other factors may have influenced the results: the sample size and the use of paper-based cognitive assessments. Unfortunately, recruiting a larger sample was not feasible due to the school-related issues. These limitations may explain the non-confirmation of the study's hypothesis.

 

    However, the present research contributes to the growing body of literature advocating for increased awareness of the importance of physical activity in school settings, emphasizing its acute and chronic benefits (Pontifex et al., 2019). Although no significant effects between groups were observed, the improvement in RT across all groups indicates that participation in a Physical Education class did not hinder children's cognitive performance immediately afterward. This finding reinforces the idea that school-based physical activity can be incorporated into the academic routine without compromising students’ executive functioning. Further studies on acute effects are needed, with larger sample sizes and updated cognitive assessment methods, such as computerized models, to enhance the understanding of the acute impact of a single Physical Education class on the executive functions of school-aged children.

 

Conclusions 

 

    Contrary to the initial hypothesis, Physical Education sessions lasting 25 or 45 minutes did not produce acute improvements in inhibitory control or working memory in 9- to 10-year-old schoolchildren, and no dose–response effect was observed. Nevertheless, executive function performance was maintained, indicating that participation in Physical Education during the school day does not impair children’s cognitive functioning.

 

References 

 

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Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, Vol. 31, Núm. 342, Nov. (2026)