ivan.e.pinto.vargas@gmail.com

Licenciado en Psicología

Universidad Autónoma Juan Misael Saracho, Bolivia.

Maestría en Ciencias del Movimiento Humano

Universidad Cruzeiro do Sul (UNICSUL), Sao Paulo, Brasil

Maestría en Psicomotricidad y Neuropsicología Infantil

Universidad Nacional Siglo XX (UNSXX), Bolivia.

Especialista en Psicología del Deporte

Universidad Estácio de Sá, São Paulo, Brasil.

Especialista en Entrenamiento Deportivo

Centro Universitario de las Facultades Metropolitanas Unidas (FMU), Brasil

Docente Universidad Salesiana de Bolivia (USB),

Carrera de Psicomotricidad, Salud, Educación y Deportes

Docente Tiempo Completo Universidad del Valle

Carrera de Psicología (Univalle)

(Bolivia)

Reception: 01/14/2026 - Acceptance: 01/25/2026

1st Review: 01/21/2026 - 2nd Review: 01/22/2026

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Suggested reference: Pinto Vargas, I.E. (2026). Does the Soccer Training Method Interfere with Psychomotor Development? A Study in Bolivian Children. Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, 30(333), 107-125. https://doi.org/10.46642/efd.v30i333.8725

 

Abstract

    Scientific documents exist that directly address the relationship of the training method with soccer learning, but very few studies relate them to the contents of child psychomotor development. Therefore, the objective of the present study is to establish the relationship of the soccer training method with psychomotor development in children from five to eleven years. A descriptive correlational study of a qualitative approach was conducted. Therefore, observation protocols and guides were used to evaluate psychomotor development subdivided into body domain (balance, general dynamic coordination, visuomotor coordination, and laterality), and motor skills (throwing, receiving and kicking). To know the training method, a semi-structured interview was used with the coaches. Seventy-five children between the ages of 5 and 11 participated. The results show that nearly half of the children present alteration in general dynamic coordination, a significantly higher number at ages of 5 and 8 years. Also, more than half present non-adequate balance between the ages of 5 to 8 years. A high percentage of the children evaluated present non-adequate visuomotor coordination and crossed laterality. Consequently, the soccer learning method corresponds to the analytical one prioritizing technique and tactics with the purpose of imparting contents and fundamentals with physical intensity not recommended for the age apparently interferes and strikes in contents of the harmonious psychomotor development over the globality and integrality of the body construction and promotes the motor refinement of kicking from the age of 5.

    Keywords: Psychomotor development. Motor skills. Training methodology. Children's soccer. Laterality.

 

Resumen

    Existen documentos científicos que abordan directamente la relación del método de entrenamiento con el aprendizaje del fútbol, muy pocos estudios los relacionan con los contenidos del desarrollo psicomotor infantil. Por ello, el objetivo del presente estudio es establecer la relación del método de entrenamiento del fútbol con el desarrollo psicomotriz en niños de cinco a once años. Se realizó un estudio descriptivo correlacional de enfoque cualitativo. Por tanto, se emplearon protocolos y guías de observación para evaluar el desarrollo psicomotor subdivididos en domino corporal (equilibrio, coordinación dinámica general, coordinación visomotriz, y lateralidad), y habilidades motrices (lanzar, recibir y patear). Para conocer el método de entrenamiento, se empleó una entrevista semiestructurada con los entrenadores. Participaron 75 niños entre 5 a 11 años. Los resultados muestran que cerca de la mitad de los niños presentan alteración en la coordinación dinámica general, un número significativo mayor en edades de 5 y 8 años. También, más de la mitad presentan equilibrio no adecuado entre las edades de 5 a 8 años. Un alto porcentaje de los niños evaluados presentan coordinación visomotriz no adecuada y lateralidad cruzada. Por consiguiente, el método de aprendizaje del fútbol corresponde al analítico priorizando la técnica y táctica con la finalidad de impartir los contenidos y fundamentos con intensidad física no recomendables para la edad aparentemente interfiere y repercute en contenidos del desarrollo psicomotor armonioso sobre la globalidad e integralidad de la construcción corporal y promueve el refinamiento motor del pateo a partir de los 5 años.

    Palabras clave: Desarrollo psicomotor. Habilidades motoras. Metodología de entrenamiento. Fútbol infantil. Lateralidad.

 

Resumo

    Existem documentos científicos que abordam diretamente a relação entre o método de treino e a aprendizagem do futebol, mas poucos estudos os relacionam com os conteúdos do desenvolvimento psicomotor infantil. Portanto, o objetivo do presente estudo é estabelecer a relação entre o método de treinamento do futebol e o desenvolvimento psicomotor em crianças de cinco a onze anos. Foi realizado um estudo correlacional descritivo com abordagem qualitativa. Para tanto, foram utilizados protocolos e guias de observação para avaliar o desenvolvimento psicomotor subdividido em domínio corporal (equilíbrio, coordenação dinâmica geral, coordenação viso-motora e lateralidade) e habilidades motoras (arremessar, receber e chutar). Para conhecer o método de treinamento foi utilizada uma entrevista semiestruturada com os treinadores. Participaram 75 crianças entre 5 e 11 anos. Os resultados mostram que cerca de metade das crianças apresenta alterações na coordenação dinâmica geral, número significativamente maior nas idades de 5 e 8 anos. Além disso, mais da metade apresenta equilíbrio inadequado entre as idades de 5 e 8 anos. Um alto percentual das crianças avaliadas apresenta coordenação viso-motora inadequada e lateralidade cruzada. Consequentemente, o método de aprendizagem do futebol que corresponde ao método analítico, que prioriza a técnica e a tática para transmitir os conteúdos e fundamentos com intensidade física não recomendada para a idade, aparentemente interfere e impacta nos conteúdos do desenvolvimento psicomotor harmonioso em geral e integralidade da construção corporal e promove o refinamento motor dos chutes a partir dos 5 anos.

    Unitermos: Desenvolvimento psicomotor. Habilidades motoras. Metodologia de treinamento. Futebol infantil. Lateralidade.

 

Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, Vol. 30, Núm. 333, Feb. (2026)

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Introduction 

 

    The choice of training methods by institutions and coaches is crucial for the teaching-learning processes of soccer based on the development of the child (González-Cárdenas 2020; Gamonales et al., 2022). To have a good technique in soccer, good coordination is necessary, therefore the importance of evaluating these capacities considering age, the adequate choice of technique and instruments, as well as the programming of training and training methods that are used. (Herrera et al., 2023)

 

    According to Pascual Verdú et al. (2015), the teaching methods employed in the soccer formative process with children are: Analytical method, decomposition of the game into elements and aspects (normally technique with ball, whether in pairs, passes and controls with constant repetitions); Global or integral method, real game in a complete way of various elements (ball, regulations, teammates, adversaries), and various aspects (coaches, tactics, physical preparation); Mixed method, combination of the analytical method and the global method with small-sided games (possession and dribbling); Systemic method, activities with cognitive processes, the player intervenes actively in decision-making as the protagonist of learning. (Pascual Verdú et al., 2015)

 

    The results obtained by Pascual Verdú et al. (2015), highlight the global teaching method as the most used. The analytical and global or integral methods the most known and the least known the systemic based on 36 Spanish coaches of 8 categories between the ages of 8 to 12 years. Both Pacheco (2007) and Pascual Verdú et al. (2015) affirm that the analytical method in soccer prevails in all clubs, due to the spaces of technical refinement and repetition with exercises isolated from the reality of the game.

 

    Studies relate sports training models with growth patterns (Granados, & Pérez, 2017; Vargas, & Carrasco, 2023), chronic injuries with repetitive exercises, intense jumps, intensity of loads during training (Rodríguez-Camacho et al., 2016), in cognitive development (Lu, & Zhong, 2023), alterations in fundamental motor skills (Bucco-dos Santos, & Zubiaur-González, 2013; Rosa Neto, 2018) and balance. (Villalobos-Samaniego et al., 2019)

 

    School-age children present low levels of motor competence (Utesch et al. 2018) or differ according to individual characteristics (Estevan et al. 2019; Gråstén et al. 2021). Recently Carcamo-Oyarzun et al. (2023) evidenced in 730 Chilean children low levels in motor tasks such as throwing, catching, bouncing, dribbling and maintaining balance, rolling, jumping, running, with presence of levels of demotivation in the practice of physical activity. Stodden et al. (2008), conclude that children with lower motor competence have less probabilities of enjoying physical practice.

 

    Research puts in evidence the importance of psychomotor contents in sport and in movement functionality. The practice of soccer improves psychomotricity, reaction speed and displacement speed in soccer players from 7 to 13 years (Filho, & Araújo, 2020). A coordination training guide with the foot influences technical fundamentals of soccer in children from 10 to 12 years (Moreno et al., 2017). Importance of laterality, eye and determinant limb according to the sport (Bache, & Orellana, 2014); alterations in laterality in female soccer players (González et al., 2019); differences between elite and non-elite soccer players. (Petro, & Szabo, 2016; Verbeek et al., 2017; Zouhal et al., 2018)

 

    For Berruezo (2000) psychomotricity considers specific contents in relation to integral development in early childhood in function of the educational context. For Muniáin (1997) it is conceived as dialogue, which considers the human being as a psychosomatic unit and that acts on its totality by means of the body and movement, with the purpose of contributing to its integral development.

 

    Studies from an instrumental motor approach stand out, consequently, research that relates soccer training methods with contents specific to psychomotor development in early formative ages from an integral psychomotor perspective is not evidenced. The present research aims, to establish the relationship of the soccer learning method with psychomotor development in children from five to eleven years in process of sports formation.

 

Method 

 

    Descriptive study with a qualitative approach. Psychomotor development components (Table 1). To learn about the training methodology, a semi-structured interview was conducted with the coaches (Table 2). Seventy-five children belonging to the La Paz Líder Soccer School in La Paz, Bolivia, 2022, were considered. They were subdivided into three categories: under-7, with 17 children (aged 5 to 7); under-9, with 29 children (aged 8 to 9); and under-11, with 29 children (aged 10 to 11). Parents signed the informed consent and authorization of participation. To the medical examination they do not report neurofunctional compromise. It was verified that the time of sports initiation oscillates between 4 and 5 years, the children do not practice extra-sports activities.

 

	Tests	Indicators	Instruments
Body control	Balance	5 years (on tiptoes). 6 years (on one foot static). 7 years (fig. number 4). 8 years (trunk and body flexed). 9 years (trunk flexed). 10 years (on tiptoes eyes closed) 11 years (on one-foot static eyes closed).	Psychomotor Assessment Manual (Rosa Neto, 2018; Rosa Neto et al., 2011)
	General Dynamic Coordination	Zig-zag displacement with ball. Slalom test with ball dribbling. Jump rope.	Sánchez Noriega (2011); Valderrama Ariza (2019)
	Visuomotor Coordination	eye-hand eye-foot	Mendieta Toledo et al. (2017)
	Laterality	Domains: eye, ear, hand, foot.	Adaptation of the Harris Test of Lateral Dominance to sports practices (Iglesias-Soler, 1999; Velastegui Grijalva, 2022)
Motor skills	Throwing Catching Kicking	Initial Elementary Mature	Goodway et al. (2019)

Source: Own elaboration

 

Teaching methodology

- Objectives - Means to achieve objectives - Activities per session - Components and content - Distribution of content per session.

Semi-structured interview

Source: Own elaboration

 

Results 

 

    The data obtained in Table 3 reveal the components of psychomotor development: body control (general dynamic coordination, laterality, balance, visuomotor coordination). Motor skills (kicking, catching, throwing).

 

		Ages
		5	6	7	8	9	10	11	Total
Body Control	G. D. Coordination
	Adequate	3	1	3	2	9	14	8	40
	Not Adequate	3	5	2	10	8	3	4	35
	Total	6	6	5	12	17	17	12	75
	Laterality
	Right-handed	4	3	4	9	12	15	9	56
	Ambidextrous								0
	Crossed	2	3	1	3	4	2	2	17
	Left-handed					1		1	2
	Total	6	6	5	12	17	17	12	75
	Balance
	Adequate	2	2	2	5	13	12	12	48
	Not Adequate	4	4	3	7	4	5		27
	Total	6	6	5	12	17	17	12	75
	V. Coordination
	Adequate		1	1	4	6	5	1	18
	Not Adequate	6	5	4	8	11	12	11	57
	Total	6	6	5	12	17	17	12	75
Motor Skills	Kicking Pattern
	Mature	3	5	5	12	16	17	12	70
	Elementary	3	1			1			5
	Initial								0
	Total	6	6	5	12	17	17	12	75
	Catching Pattern
	Mature	2	2		8	16	17	12	57
	Elementary	1	2	1	4	1			9
	Initial	3	2	4					9
	Total	6	6	5	12	17	17	12	75
	Throwing Pattern
	Mature	1	2	1	10	16	16	11	57
	Elementary	1	1		2	1	1	1	7
	Initial	4	3	4					11
	Total	6	6	5	12	17	17	12	75

Source: Own elaboration

 

The data obtained in Table 4 reveals the method, objectives, and characteristics of training by category.

 

	Method	Objectives	Characteristics
Under-7	Analytical	Acquire work habits (dedication, participation, collaboration, respect among teammates, respect for coexistence rules, care for work material, etc.). That the child discovers, experiments, knows their motor and coordination capacity for soccer.	General warm-up; Coordination or agility; Flexibility, speed; Individual technique (analytical exercises, static and dynamic). Collective technique (team exercises, static and dynamic). Elongation (relaxation). Feedback, sharing experiences of what was learned.
Under-9	Analytical	Form, develop and improve physical, technical, tactical and specific coordinative and psychological capacities.	Basic technical skills, body and ball relationship. Offensive: feint, oriented control, pass, dribbling, headers. Defensive: ball recovery and/or neutralization of the action (body charge, anticipation, tackle, clearances with the foot, headers, defensive order).
Under-11	Analytical	Systematically improve the performance of the players and the team, to then stabilize it at the highest possible level. Respect a good game, club identity, and achieving a good game pattern that is recognized wherever we present ourselves.	Motor capacities, coordination and orientation. Conditional capacities, flexibility, endurance, strength, speed. Resulting capacities (skill, dexterity, agility). Technical fundamentals (feints, dribbles, driving, headers, passes, ball control, shots, collective games).

Source: Own elaboration

 

    Table 5 shows the methodological content used by the coach of the under-7 category.

 

Technical Preparation Learning the basic actions	Tactical Preparation Learning the Basic Principles
Control Passing Dribbling Shooting-at goal	Positioning on the field My team has the ball; I attack. My team does not have the ball; I defend.

Source: Own elaboration

 

    Table 6 shows the distribution of methodological content for the three days of weekly training in the planning of the coach for the under-9 category.

 

Tuesday	Thursday	Saturday
- Introduction - General warm-up - Physical training (coordination) - Technical training - Tactical training - Games - Cool down (individual and in pairs)	- Introduction - Warm-up - Technical and tactical work (ball retention, attack, defense, requiring concentration) - Games - Finishing - Match and cool-down	- Introduction - Warm-up - Tactical work - Set pieces - Rehearsed plays - Matches and cool-down - Reflection

Source: Own elaboration

 

    Table 7 contains the objectives, methodological contents based on phases within a training session considered by the coach of the under-9 category.

 

Phase	Objectives	Content
Introduction	-Explain the objectives programmed for the session. -Motivate students. -Organize the collective into groups.	-Clear and simple explanations of the objectives and contents of the session. -Duration 3 to 5 min.
Initial: warm-up	-Increase the activity of the different functional systems of the organism (physiological, muscular, psychological). -Prepare the organism for the next part of training.	-Global exercises and played forms with ball. -Analytical movements. -Duration 15 to 20% of total volume.
Principal: achievement of objectives	-Achieve the proposed objectives for the session.	-Technical, tactical and conditional elements. -Technique, coordination and speed. -Duration 50 to 70% of total volume.
Final: cool down	-Restore the athlete's activation level progressively to a state close to the initial one.	-Relaxation games. -Stretching exercises to create a habit in the player. -Reflection on the work performed 10 to 15%.

Source: Own elaboration

 

    Table 8 shows the intensity, duration, and frequency according to the number of training sessions per period within the coach's plan for the under-9 category.

 

Period	Category	Age	Nr. of training sessions per week	Duration	Intensity
i	organize, evaluate, and select	8 – 9	3 - 4	-90 min total -10 min warm-up -60 min assessment exercises -20 min free play	60 %
ii	teaching or learning	8 – 9	3 - 4	-70–90 minutes total -5 to 10 minutes introduction -10 minutes warm-up -50 minutes main session -20 minutes cool-down	80 to 95%

Source: Own elaboration

 

    Table 9 expresses the specific methodological contents used within the training process for soccer by the coach for the under-9 category.

 

Offensive		Defensive
Marking Attacks and counterattacks Splitting Coverage Open spaces Support Walls Ball retention Control of play	Control of the game Attacks Permanent support Ball retention Pace of play Changes of pace Speed of play Progression in play	Marking Surveillance Coverage Swaps Retreat Timing

Source: Own elaboration

 

Discussion 

 

    The results obtained show that nearly half of the evaluated children present alterations in general dynamic coordination, with a higher number at 5 and 8 years (Table 3). A possible explanation is the experience factor phenomenon; that is, the assessment of zig-zag displacement with the ball is practiced daily (Tables 4, 5, and 6); however, there is difficulty in dissociating and inhibiting body parts in new tasks such as the slalom tests with ball dribbling and jump rope. For Berruezo (2000), these skills appear almost spontaneously. Nevertheless, it is appropriate to influence them since they improve with practice at any age and are essential for our daily life.

 

    Regarding visuomotor coordination, 57 children aged 5 to 11 years (Table 3) present difficulties in coordinating visual tracking of the ball with their hands and with less precise movement adjustments. For Berruezo (2000), this skill involves the mastery of objects, approaching them, handling them, and projecting them in space, as the owner of the movement and the environment. According to Mendieta Toledo et al. (2017), varied practice is needed to improve it; e.g., shooting the ball into the hoop, making passes with hands and/or legs, etc. The evaluated children do not engage in practices with a variety of stimuli, except for the goalkeepers (Tables 4 to 9).

 

    For Macías Merizalde et al. (2022), and Vayer (1982), balance is the foundation of all dynamic coordination. These statements are related to the previous results. At 5 years of age, both static and dynamic balance reach great maturity, but it will not be until late childhood (6 – 12) that they reach efficient competence; motor games contribute to their development, in this period balance behaviors have been perfected and are capable of adjusting to models (Macías Merizalde et al., 2022). In this study, 27 children still present inadequate balance between the ages of 5 and 10; it is noteworthy that the rest of the children have already matured this capacity. Possibly, due to motor tasks of static movements with passes and shots as proposed by the analytical method.

 

    One of the most relevant findings of this study evidences that 17 children of the total present crossed laterality (6) children between 5 to 7 years and (7) children between 8 and 9 years (Table 3). At the beginning of the preoperative period, the child uses both hemispheres (bilaterality); approximately at the end, the use of one limb over the other declines. There are those who maintain that laterality finishes consolidating until 10, 11 years of age. According to Bache, & Orellana (2014), the combination of laterality, with eye-limb predominance, gives rise to athletes with homogeneous laterality and those with crossed laterality (eye-hand or eye-foot), which may have repercussions on the technical aspect. In this regard, González et al. (2019) report that 70% of youth female soccer players present crossed laterality based on their playing position.

 

    There is controversy regarding the impact of left-foot use on soccer performance; dominance could be associated with the task (Vagenas, & Hoshizaki, 1991). Researchers such as Verbeek et al. (2017) found no differences between left-handed and right-handed players in youth soccer players. It may be advantageous if foot laterality has been modified with new movements based on a non-dominant improvement for the task (Bache, & Orellana, 2014). Non-dominant training improves the dominant one, especially for the left-footed player (Haaland, & Hoff, 2003; Kumar and Mandal, 2005). This phenomenon is known as “bilateral transfer” (Magill, 1993). These findings were in youth and senior soccer players.

 

    It is advisable that non-dominant foot training be stimulated or refined after the definition and/or natural choice of the dominant limb, until consolidation, respecting neuropsychomotor maturation, between 12 or 13 years of age. Not respecting timing or order, by making an incorrect choice of tasks and the way they are executed (psychomotor development), generates the risk of problems, developmental alterations, and health issues (Bilbao et al., 2012; Carrasco Coca et al., 2021; Zampa, 2007). Picq, & Vayer (1977), as well as Herrera et al. (2023), establish the close relationship between laterality and coordinative capacities with the maturation of the nervous system. The study by Naito, & Hirose (2014), conducted with the famous athlete Neymar Jr., evidences that he activates fewer brain areas during foot precision tasks compared to professional soccer players; this is attributed to the fact that, as a child, he received more than 50 types of varied stimuli, allowing for the preservation of cortical neuromotor training.

 

    In soccer players, laterality is related to spatial orientations, such as attentional ones (Petro, & Szabo, 2016), and even, as a consequence of right and left turns, reaction times between elite and non-elite soccer players (Zouhal et al., 2018); this highlights the importance of identifying laterality deficits in soccer players at an early age.

 

    The most practiced skill, and one that is maturationally refined from the age of 5, is kicking, possible effects of the analytical method (Tables 4 to 9) even relegating other skills such as throwing and catching (initial and elemental levels) (Table 3). These results align with the recent study by Carcamo-Oyarzun et al. (2023) who evaluated motor competence in children aged 9 to 13 using the Mobak 5-6 test with consistency in motor tasks: throwing, catching, bouncing, dribbling (object control); and maintaining balance, rolling, jumping, running (self-movement), nearly 80% of the sample presented low levels and in some cases low self-perception of motor competence and motivation, even more concerning, the values decrease coherently as the number of classes increases. This demonstrates the harmful effects on psychomotor development according to the temporality of practice.

 

    According to Cratty, & Justo (1982), more than 50% of 5-year-old children are capable of receiving a ball in flight. The ability to throw develops before that of receiving (Berruezo, 2000). Toward 6 and a half years of age, throwing is considered mature with broad corporal participation (Ruiz Pérez, 1987). The automation of any action through reproduction and repetition under analytical conditions does not guarantee its correct execution during the game (Ardá, & Casal, 2003). For Menescardi et al. (2022; 2023) as well as Carcamo-Oyarzun et al. (2023), the combination of motor competence, enjoyment, and motivation must be considered to understand children's movement behaviors and provide meaningful practices.

 

    Sporting success is not related to the start of training at very early ages. Güllich (2007); Lorenzo et al. (2014); Oldenziel et al. (2004); Côté et al. (2007) propose early diversification based on deliberate play until deliberate practice, from diversity to specialty. The best indicator in the measurement of talent detection is the athlete's learning percentage, the speed of acquiring new skills and of improvement (Burgess, & Naughton, 2010; Lorenzo et al., 2014; Vaeyens et al., 2008). The children evaluated do not perform extracurricular activities. It could be beneficial and possibly compensate for psychomotor alterations when practiced through play or other activities. Studies report improvements in psychomotor development in children through extracurricular activities. (Delgado-Lobete, & Montes-Montes, 2016; Pons Rodríguez, & Arufe-Giráldez, 2016)

 

    Finally, based on an exhaustive review, a definition of psychomotricity in the sporting field is proposed, understanding it as a path of stimulation considering the human being in all their globality (body, movement, motor aspects, cognitive activity, and socio-affective components), thus constituting an interrelation and dependence of these through the practice of physical activity and sport. The psychomotrician immersed in sport is that professional who, through specific resources derived from psychomotricity, deals with addressing the person, at any age, from corporal mediation and movement.

 

Conclusion 

 

    The analytical soccer training method employed at early ages during soccer initiation apparently interferes with harmonic psychomotor development regarding the globality and integrality of corporal construction and promotes the motor refinement of kicking and consolidation of crossed laterality from the age of 5, effects on the maturation of catching and throwing skills, closely related to movements typical of soccer.

 

    Acquiring efficient kicking skills from a very early age and its positive impact on sporting practice does not suggest accelerating stages and relegating essential psychomotor contents for our daily lives.

 

    Studies could be directed to investigate the effects of skill inhibition of the dominant limb when training the non-dominant foot (untrained) before 12 or 13 years of age, since it is the basis of our organization and psychomotor actions.

 

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