Hélio Franklin Rodrigues de Almeida*

helio@unir.br

André Ribeiro da Silva**

andreribeiro@unb.br

José Roberto de Maio Godoi Filho***

godoifilho@unir.br

Leonardo Severo da Luz Neto****

lluz@unir.br

Jitone Leônidas Soares+

jleonidas@unb.br

Cristiano André Hoppe Navarro++

cristianohoppenavarro@gmail.com

Alex de Oliveira Cavalcante+++

alexdeoliveiracavalcante@gmail.com

Verônica Santos da Hora++++

veronicahora@hotmail.com

Guilherme Lins de Magalhães++++

glmjudo@hotmail.com

Jônatas de França Barros+++++

e-maildojfb@gmail.com

*Educador Físico

Pós-Doutor em Ciências da Saúde
**Educador Físico

Pós-Doutor em Ciências do Comportamento

***Educador Físico

Doutor em Educação Física

****Educador Físico

Doutor em Ciências da Educação

+Educador Físico

Doutor em Ciências da Saúde

Educador Físico

++Doutorando em Ciências do Comportamento

+++Educador Físico

Mestre/a em Ciências do Comportamento

++++Educador Físico

Doutor em Educação

+++++Educador Físico

Pós-doutor em Motricidade Humana

(Brasil)

Reception: 06/24/2025 - Acceptance: 04/02/2026

1st Review: 03/04/2026 - 2nd Review: 03/28/2026

Accessible document. Law N° 26.653. WCAG 2.0

Suggested reference: Almeida, HFR, Silva, AR, Godoi Filho, JRM, Neto, LSL, Soares, JL, Navarro, CAH, Cavalcante, AO, Hora, VS, Magalhães, GL, & Barros, JF (2026). Historical Aspects of the Sports Training Evolution. A New Chronological Narrative. Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, 31(338), 200-227. https://doi.org/10.46642/efd.v31i338.8449

 

Abstract

    The objective of this study was to propose a new evolutionary chronology of sports training throughout history, highlighting the continuity solutions established between the periods that make up this evolution and, correlating it with the political-ideological context that the Olympic Games have always highlighted, and still do. It is suggested here that the beginning of the development of the bases of a sports science is suggested from the second half of the last century, also analyzing the empirical contributions of ancient civilizations that culminated in today's scientific-technological rigor and, notoriously, subsidized by highly efficient strategies in generating financial resources to pay for this entire dynamic evolutionary process, which we call “sports mercantilism”.

    Keywords: Sports training. Olympic Games. Marketing.

 

Resumo

    O objetivo deste estudo foi propor uma nova cronologia evolutiva do treinamento esportivo ao longo da história, destacando as soluções de continuidade estabelecidas entre os períodos que compõem essa evolução e correlacionando-a com o contexto político-ideológico que os Jogos Olímpicos sempre enfatizaram e ainda enfatizam. Sugere-se aqui que o início do desenvolvimento das bases de uma ciência do esporte se dá a partir da segunda metade do século passado, analisando também as contribuições empíricas das civilizações antigas que culminaram no rigor científico-tecnológico atual e, notoriamente, subsidiadas por estratégias altamente eficientes na geração de recursos financeiros para custear todo esse processo evolutivo dinâmico, que denominamos “mercantilismo esportivo”.

    Unitermos: Treinamento esportivo. Jogos Olímpicos. Marketing.

 

Resumen

    El objetivo de este estudio fue proponer una nueva cronología evolutiva del entrenamiento deportivo a lo largo de la historia, destacando las discontinuidades entre los periodos que conforman esta evolución y correlacionándola con el contexto político-ideológico que los Juegos Olímpicos siempre han enfatizado y siguen enfatizando. Se sugiere que el inicio del desarrollo de los fundamentos de una ciencia del deporte se sitúa en la segunda mitad del siglo pasado, analizando también las contribuciones empíricas de las civilizaciones antiguas que culminaron en el rigor científico-tecnológico actual y, notablemente, subvencionadas por estrategias altamente eficientes para generar recursos financieros que financiaran todo este proceso evolutivo dinámico, al que denominamos “mercantilismo deportivo”.

    Palabras clave: Entrenamiento deportivo. Juegos Olímpicos. Marketing.

 

Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, Vol. 31, Núm. 338, Jul. (2026)

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Introduction 

 

    Conceptually, sports training can be understood as the process of methodological and scientific systematization necessary for the optimization of the many dimensions involved in physical fitness, considering a unit of time in which partial and final objectives are defined to achieve maximum performance in a given sporting practice (Almeida, 2002). For this author, the evolution of sports training throughout history has as its greatest reference the Olympic Games, since these, in addition to integrating people from all continents, are also, par excellence, the showcase where the success, or failure, of each training system aimed at high sports performance is exposed to the world.

 

    On this topic, that is, the world of sports seen through the Olympic Games, Costa (1972) based on Hegedus (1969b) established an initial scale dividing the historical evolution of sports training into periods, which was modified by Fernandes (1981) and corroborated by Tubino (1985a). The latter was changed by Dantas (1985) and remodeled by Almeida, Almeida, & Gomes (2002).

 

    Historically, for Tubino (1985a), the first records of sports competitions date back to 3000 BC, in ancient Mesopotamia, where artifacts were found that indicate the practice of races and fights. In ancient times, especially in the East, physical activities appear in various forms of fighting, swimming, rowing, horse riding, archery, in the various games of the time, including religious rituals, and mainly in warrior preparation in general.

 

    In contrast, it seems to us that only from the Middle Ages onwards, and not before as some authors suggest, did diversified practices emerge in relation to multiple attitudes consciously seeking, albeit precariously and empirically, better physical performance to primarily meet military objectives aimed at territorial defense and expansionist campaigns, situations that were quite common in the feudal system then in force in Western Europe and Asia. In general, such practices at the time were directed towards sports such as venatio, polo, boxing, jousting, pankration, chariot racing, naval battle, among others, and on a significantly smaller scale, also towards the recreational practice of some sports of the time such as equestrian activities, ball games, archery, among others. 

 

    Reflecting more deeply on the subject, it is admitted that at the beginning of man's adventure on earth, a series of utilitarian practices were transmitted from generation to generation that, observed and imitated, allowed him, living in a hostile environment, to better sharpen his senses (Campos Filho, 2024). It is imaginable that many of these practices were carried out of absolute daily necessity, as in prehistoric times when man, through an exceptional physical conditioning acquired as a result of the physical activities imposed by the specific needs in his daily life, aimed only and solely at his survival in relation to predatory animals, and even others of his own species.

 

    Only with human evolution, mainly in ancient Greece and Rome, these practices, despite differing greatly from the general lines followed methodologically in the current sports training process, began to have a logical sense seeking, in addition to body aesthetics, also physical preparation for military purposes, primarily, as well as some sports competitions such as the Olympic Games, the Augustan Games and the Capitoline Games. Only secondarily did they lend themselves to the recreational practice of other sports typical of the time.

 

    The objective of this study is to propose and justify a new chronological periodization of sports training, consisting of seven interconnected periods, analyzing how empirical contributions and scientific-technological rigor were subsidized by financial strategies, culminating in what is defined here as sports mercantilism. This study seeks to answer how the political-ideological and economic context influenced the transition between these training systems.

 

Methodology 

 

    This study is a narrative literature review with a qualitative and historical approach. The research involved a survey of classic and contemporary sources, including books and scientific articles indexed in databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, published between 1950 and 2024.

 

    The search strategy utilized combinations of keywords and Boolean operators, including: ("sports training" OR "periodization") AND ("Olympic Games" OR "history") AND ("technology" OR "marketing"). Inclusion criteria prioritized authors who established the foundations of sports training (e.g., Matveev, Tubino, Dantas) and recent studies discussing the impact of technology and marketing on high performance. Non-indexed sources and materials lacking peer-review validation were excluded to maintain scientific rigor.

 

    The data were analyzed through a chronological comparative method. Comparative matrices were used to systematize the findings by decade and Olympic cycle, identifying stable patterns (continuities) and paradigm ruptures in training systems in relation to their socio-political contexts.

 

Results 

 

    The proposed new periodization is summarized in table 1, comparing the evolution of focus and methodology across history.

 

Period	Duration	Key Characteristics	Reference Milestone
1. Empiricism	5th - 15th Century	Military preparation, utilitarian practices, and basic aesthetics.	Middle Ages to Renaissance
2. Improvisation	15th Century - 1896	Lack of methodological basis; emergence of English and American trends.	Renaissance to Athens 1896
3. Systematization	1896 - 1936	Planning and control of workloads; Finnish, German, and Swedish trends.	Berlin 1936
4. Pre-Scientific	1936 - 1948	Emergence of scientific rigor (Interval training, early periodization) despite war.	London 1948
5. Scientific	1948 - 1972	GAS theory, Matveev's periodization, and physiological laboratories.	Munich 1972
6. Scientific-Technlogical	1972 - 1992	Computer use, biomechanical analysis, and Cold War political propaganda.	Barcelona 1992
7. Scientific-Technological - Mercantilist	1992 - Present	Sports as a business, global marketing, and high-cost technological support.	Paris 2024

Source: The authors

 

The Transition to the Mercantilistic Era (1992-2024) 

 

    From the XXV Olympics in Barcelona (1992) to the recent games in Paris (2024), sport has consolidated itself as an efficient product for global branding. The "sport-spectacle" focuses on generating financial value through the association of athletes' images with products. This period is marked by the dominance of Artificial Intelligence in workload control and tactical analysis. While the Socialist trend (notably China) maintains state responsibility, the Capitalist trend relies on private subsidies and tax breaks to finance high-performance policies.

 

Chronological periodisation of sports training 

 

    Aiming to start a new discussion on the subject, we currently suggest demonstrating the evolutionary modifications of sports training throughout history through a new periodization model, which, in our opinion, is composed of seven interconnected evolutionary periods, which we initially list below in chronological order, and then we make the main considerations about each of them:

1.     Period of Empiricism.

 

    Duration: From the 5th century, through the entire Middle Ages, until the emergence of the Renaissance in the 15th century.

 

2.     Improvisation Period.

 

    Duration: From the emergence of the Renaissance, in the 15th century, until the 1st Olympics of the Modern Era, in Athens (1896).

 

3.     Systematization Period.

 

    Duration: From the 1st Olympics of the Modern Era, in Athens (1896), to the 11th Olympics, in Berlin (1936).

 

4.     Pre-Scientific Period.

 

    Duration: From the XI Olympics, in Berlin (1936), to the XIV Olympics, in London (1948).

 

5.     Scientific Period.

 

    Duration: From the XIV Olympics in London (1948) to the XXI Olympics in Munich (1972).

 

6.     Scientific-Technological Period.

 

    Duration: From the XXI Olympics, in Munich (1972), to the XXV Olympics in Barcelona (1992).

 

7.     Scientific-Technological-Mercantilistic Period

 

    Duration: From the XXV Olympics, in Barcelona (1992), to the present date.

 

The Period of Empiricism and its references 

 

    From the 5th century (Middle Ages) to the 15th century (Renaissance) 

 

    It can be assumed that many of the various physical preparation processes present in the current, complex, high-performance sports structure have their origins in the most remote civilizations. Passing through ancient times, when the peoples of the East, West and New World, faced with constant war conflicts, showed a notable interest in physical conditioning and controlling the lifestyle habits of their citizens, continually evolving over time until reaching contemporary scientific and technological rigor.

 

    It is clear, even at that time, that physical activities through games, gymnastics, dance, and hiking, complemented by massages and saunas, were especially oriented towards prophylactic, stabilizing, and therapeutic aspects of the individual, with the ultimate goal, it is imagined, of cooperating for their integral formation and improving their motor performance, enabling them to perform their daily activities with greater quality. In this regard, it is worth highlighting the enormous contribution of the Greek and Roman peoples to the development of this period, given that it is common knowledge that, in ancient Greece, in addition to preaching the cult of the body, there was a significant number of sports competitions, the main one being the Olympic Games.

 

    On this subject, Tubino (1985a) states that the physical preparation of Hellenic athletes was very similar to the physical training used today, with eclectic activities composed of stimuli such as running, marching, fighting, jumping, etc. For the aforementioned author, the aforementioned people also applied overloads to improve performance, established special diets during training and competition periods, had psychological preparation supported by suffering, used warm-up at the beginning and a return to calmness plus relaxing massages at the end of the training session, and already had, following the example of modern scientific concepts, the so-called training cycles, called at the time “tetras”, consisting of three days with the application of increasing loads and one day of rest for organic restoration. (Vretaros, 2022)

 

    On the other hand, at the time, the Romans, acting as conquerors, completely diverted the objectives that the Greeks proposed through sports. Taking advantage of their sports knowledge, they began to train their soldiers in order to make them unbeatable in combat, and it was still under the aegis of the Romans that, in a degrading way, the professionalization of sports occurred. Possibly inspired by the model already existing in Greece, the Roman people created the Augustan Games and the Capitoline Games in which bribery and rape became commonplace, transforming these events into true sports fairs in which spectacles were presented with characteristics very different from those of their time of splendor. (Hegedus, 1969b; Tubino, 1985b).       

 

    The Roman era began to be overcome, giving rise to the Christian era, in which a new cultural peak was reached, with physical activities taking on a new direction. From the 15th century onwards, the transition from the medieval to the modern mentality was characterized by the Renaissance movement that originated in Europe, with a broad intellectual reach reaching the sectors of arts, sciences and philosophy, resulting in the construction of a more rational society, based on the progress of science and the educational dissemination of knowledge among men.

With the advent of the Renaissance, humanists emerged, who transmitted to their contemporaries, in addition to the need to broadly develop human capacity, also the interpretation of life in a more complete way, giving rise to the concept of reason, emphasizing the ideal of efficiency and technological progress, intellectual, objective, precise and useful knowledge for human reality (Almeida, 2024). Thus, as reported by Cotrim (1987), following the example of the ancient Greeks, it was possible at that time to reach truly broad horizons, guiding the purposes of individuals with breadth and depth, understanding in a very judicious way the most important tendencies of the human personality in all aspects, including athletes.

 

    Thus, we postulate that this period began with the archaic methods of physical preparation of ancient civilizations, which were nothing more than empirical practices, and ended with the emergence of the Renaissance, when the search for knowledge became a constant among men, also causing, it can be assumed, important changes in human behavior related to the practice of physical activities at the time.

 

The Improvisation Period and its references 

 

    From the 15th century (Renaissance), until the 1st Olympics of the Modern Era (Athens -1896) 

 

    During this period, as its name suggests, the lack of quality in sports preparation in general was notorious. Initially, it can be assumed that this was due to a lack of knowledge about human biology and other related sciences, a fact that was undoubtedly associated with the lack of a methodological basis for the development of techniques and methods that could be used for teaching and learning content related to human motor skills for sports.

 

    Later, the above framework was gradually modified by learned humanist doctors, such as the French Jean Fernel (1497-1558) and Ambroise Paré (1517-1590), Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), Gabrielle Fallopio (1523-1562), Bartolomeu Eustacchio (1524-1574), Girolamo Fabricius (1537-1619), Miguel Servet (1511-1553), Andrea Cesalpino (1519-1603) and Willian Harvey (1578-1657), among others, all graduates of renowned European medical universities, who were inspired by the studies of Avicenna (980-1037 AD), a Persian physician who had previously reinterpreted the medical works of historical predecessors such as the greek Hippocrates (460-377 BC) and the Italian Claudius Galen (129-199 AD), among others, established the foundations for the expansion and development of medical, biological and other related sciences, also influencing, through technological and scientific innovations, sports physical preparation. (Lyons, & Petrucelli, 1997; Dejo-Bustíos, 2019; Castillo, 2022)

 

    From then on, countering the influences of religious indoctrination that were so imperative at the time, human movement began to be recognized as one of the greatest possibilities for meeting man's intrinsic needs (Tubino, 1985b; Dantas 1985), mainly, we believe, from the moment when machines began to occupy a prominent place in man's daily life, increasing the motor passivity provided by equipment and devices in development, and available in people's daily lives.

 

    These new understandings increased the appreciation of human rationality and the belief in applied sciences, which in turn, when it comes to physical preparation, allowed us to understand sports performance as a phenomenon dependent on the control of many variables, which should be organized in a manner directed towards a specific end, and thus promote the specific adaptations necessary to achieve the goal they proposed. Hegedus (1969a) suggests that at the time, when it came to the practical exaltation of humanistic values, European countries, in comparison to other countries, evidently due to the fact that they presented their own cultural aspects, directed themselves differently to sports practices. Based on these facts, we suggest that during this period two main “methodological trends” arose in relation to the dynamics of sports training: 1) English trend; and 2) North American trend, which we discuss below.

 

English trend in sports training 

 

    England was probably the first country to guide large masses of people towards aspects of physical training aimed at high performance in sports. Of all the sports activities recommended by the English, their preference for long-distance running was notable, which, in addition to being used for recreation, also became part of the physical training of the British army, as well as being used in competitions between mail delivery men, known as “professional runners”, who covered great distances every day for their work, and were even entrusted with large sums of money. Later, to encourage the practice of shorter and faster runs, the English created the mile race, which was widely accepted by society.

During this period, some researchers, through their own works, guided physical training beyond sports issues, emphasizing the prophylactic aspects of physical activity. In this sense, it is important to highlight the influence of the physician Thomas Elyot (1490-1546), who, through the book “The Governous”, which was dedicated to King Henry VIII, catalogued physical exercises of various types, all aimed at promoting health. Also worthy of mention is the work of the pedagogue Roger Asham (1516-1569), entitled “The School Master”, which proposed that children from 14 years of age strengthen their bodies through running, jumping, swimming, boxing, fencing, and other physical activities. (Tubino, 1985b)

 

North American trend in sports training 

 

    Around 1850, North American coaches, influenced by the work methodologies used by the English, began to “experiment” with various combinations of existing methods. Coaches of the time, such as Dean Cronwell, Lawson Robertson, and Mike Murphy, stood out in the competitive scene when they proposed dividing the total distance of the running training into parts, which should be covered at speeds close to maximum and interspersed with a break for organic recovery. In this way, they began to guide physical training by emphasizing the development of anaerobic capacity and speed, thus establishing a trend contrary to the English training trend. (Tubino, 1985b; Dantas, 1985)

 

    The first concepts of physical training date back to this period, with principles based on intervals between repetitions of each race, which we now call “interval training”. Thus, the North Americans, modifying the English method, created their own method, improving the sporting results of the time, which led the Europeans to also adopt this new type of training. (Fernandes, 1981)

 

    Around 1885, with the aim of demonstrating superiority, the Americans began to hold sporting confrontations with the English. A “three-day race” was created, won by the English athlete Crossland who ran a total of 471 km, and they also launched the “hour race”, to find out the longest distance that could be run in 60 minutes. Likewise, the Americans, in an innovative way, began to venture into shorter distances (100 yards, 440 yards, and even half and 1 mile), with their athletes achieving great victories in these distances in confrontation with the English, such as Low Myers who ran 440 yards in 49 seconds, and Hilpatrick completed the mile in 1m 53s. (Tubino, 1985b)

 

    It can be seen that during this period new concepts of physical training for the purposes of sports competition always emerged in athletics, later extending to other individual sports, and only much later reaching team sports. Given the above, we postulate that this period began with the emergence of the Renaissance, in the 15th century, and lasted until the First Olympics of the Modern Era (Athens 1896).

 

The Systematization Period and its references 

 

    From the 1st Olympics (Athens 1896), to the 11th Olympics (Berlin 1936) 

 

    During this period, based on the teachings of the previous period, the need to plan, organize and control the workloads to be administered during training became even more evident, defining basic points and paths to follow towards a previously established goal. This process, despite the many sanctions resulting from World War I and the great difficulties in communication at the time, was leveraged by some coaches from the European continent who rethought and adapted their physical training strategies based on North American methodological “innovations”, thus developing new methods of prescribing and controlling training. Three trends in sports training emerged during this period: 1) Finnish trend; 2) German trend; and 3) Swedish trend.

 

Finnish trend in sports training 

 

    According to Hegedus (1969a), the first country to take the initiative in this regard was Finland, with the trainer Lauri Pihkala standing out, who in 1912 proposed the “Finnish system” of physical training for high-performance sports. His ideas focused on multilateral training, applying the wave-like concept that at the time consisted of gradually increasing the intensity of the race, starting from a slow jog until reaching maximum speed, performing many repetitions over distances of 100 to 200 meters, which were performed at high intensity, and interspersed with 10 to 20-minute breaks for recovery. This is why many say that Lauri Pihkala was the creator of interval training as the model is known today. According to Tubino (1985a), his method basically had the following characteristics:

1. Inclusion of speed training for middle and long-distance runners;

2. Alternate short, intense runs with long intervals for organic recovery; and

3. Significantly increase the volume and intensity of training loads.

German trend in sports training 

 

    According to Tubino (1985a), around 1920, Krummel, a highly successful German coach in that decade and a follower of the North American trend in sports training, after a series of experiments found:

1. There are differences between power and aerobic endurance;

2. It is physiologically advantageous to use intervals between stimuli; and

3. It is possible to acquire power and aerobic endurance by running short distances in training.

Swedish trend in sports training 

 

    From 1930 onwards, Sweden began to develop its own physical training method, which was composed of the fusion of several currents of work practiced by other countries, proposing to develop the organic condition of the individual through long-term physical efforts, seeking to provoke in the athlete adaptations caused by the means and difficulties that nature offered. (Tubino, 1985b)

 

    According to the aforementioned author, it was with this intention that, precisely in the Swedish city of Bosöm, the coach Gosse Holmer developed the “Fartlek” method, based on the principle that athletes in their training should avoid direct contact with the competition tracks, and work using woods, fields, etc., which in his opinion would be the most favorable places for the development of functional capacities such as speed of movement and cardiopulmonary resistance. This method, which after undergoing several modifications over the years, is still widely used today in all sports, consisted in its original form of:

1. Carry out training sessions lasting 1 to 2 hours in nature, categorically avoiding racetracks;

2. Use distances ranging from 50 to 3,000 meters;

3. Perform the intensity of the efforts according to the distance of the races; and

4. Establish intervals between efforts, during which the athlete remained physically active, walking quickly or jogging gently, according to the characteristics of the race execution.    

    Tubino (1985a) states that at the same time and in opposition to Holmer 's work, in the Swedish city of Valadalen another coach stood out, Gosta Olander, who stood out in the sports scene of the time by presenting his training method, “Valadalen training”, which was characterized by:

1. Alternate between “hard”, high-intensity training and “soft”, moderate-to-low-intensity training to obtain a restorative effect on the body;

2. Use terrain with a high degree of difficulty (swamps and hills) when carrying out races; and

3. Carry out technical corrections while carrying out the work, which should be carried out with joy and relaxation.

    When analyzing the two training proposals, it can be seen that, while Holmer favored relatively long workouts with variations in running intensity, Olander, on the other hand, organized his training sessions in shorter sessions with high intensity loads rather than quantity. It can be assumed that the choice of the type of training they should undergo caused disagreement among the athletes at the time in their personal choice of one of these two coaches. Even with this division of preferences, the progress in the athletes' performance was enormous and the contribution of these two coaches is still noticeable today, since today the recommendation of a mix of these two types of training is well known.

 

    We postulate that this period began with the first Olympics of the modern era (Athens - 1896), lasting until the XI Olympics (Berlin - 1936), when Adolf Hitler promoted a great political-ideological manifestation of these Olympic Games, organizing a structure aimed at allowing him to show the world the alleged supremacy of the Germans over other peoples and races, in which he was unsuccessful.

 

The Pre-Scientific Period and its references 

 

    From the XI Olympics (Berlin 1936), to the XIV Olympics (London 1948) 

 

    We postulate that this period began shortly before World War II, continued through it and lasted for a few years after its end, and was characterized by the emergence of several attempts at experiments related to physical preparation, which, although still guided by the empirical practices that existed at the time, already indicated a relative degree of scientific rigor. These trials were significantly hampered by the lack of financial resources, as the world turned its budgetary attention to the advent of the ongoing war, which led to a deep economic recession at this time.

 

    During this period, research on muscle metabolism by the German physician Otto Fritz Meyerhof, who in 1922, together with Archibald Vivian Hill, won the Nobel Prize in Medicine, and was later assisted by Gustav Embden and Jakub Karol Parnas in elucidating the mechanism of muscle glycolysis, stood out . In 1929, he became one of the directors of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research, a position he held until 1938, when, fleeing the Nazi regime, he was forced to emigrate to Paris (Selke, & Heppner, 2017). Also in 1927, in the American city of Cambridge, MA, the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory was created, directed by biochemists Lawrence Henderson and David Bruce Dill, which, as Folk (2010) reported, initially had the main mission of studying the theme of environmental inclement weather and the use of military equipment as factors influencing the physical fitness of military personnel.

 

    During this period, the facts described above gave rise to three new trends in sports training: 1) German trend; 2) Czech trend; and 3) Hungarian trend.

 

German trend in sports training 

 

    Despite the scarcity of financial resources caused by the global war, even with limited resources, several scholars continued to develop and improve other methods of physical preparation, thus contributing to the evolution of sports training not stagnation. Among these, the German doctors Woldemar Gerschller and Herbert Reindel stood out, who in 1936 in the city of Freiburg, based on the concept of intermittent exercise and using heart rate as a physiological criterion for prescription, conducted an experiment with athletes proposing periods of work and recovery based on heart rate targets, finding an increase of up to 20% in cardiac volume after 21 days of training (Gibala, & Hawley, 2017). Thus, they innovated the proposals for interval training previously practiced, creating a training system in which the recovery interval was the most important aspect of its methodology, emphasizing that, precisely during the pause between efforts, the heart's adaptability to longer-lasting and more intense stimuli occurred more efficiently, thus causing its morphological strengthening and physiological improvement. Based on this statement, they then proposed:

1. Include short runs performed at high intensity, in which a heart rate (HR) of 180 bpm should be reached, followed by a rest period in which the HR would decrease to 120 bpm before starting the next effort;

2. Alternate short and long runs, performed at high and moderate intensity, respectively, and performed alternately;

3. Conduct shorter work sessions;

4. Do specific training to develop movement speed;

5. Control the time to complete the training distances; and

6. Return to training on the race tracks, where the competitions would take place.

    With this methodological proposal, Woldemar Gerschller was responsible for training world record holders of the time, such as Rudolf Harbig, Gordon Pirie and Roger Moens, and was the coach of the German track and field team at the Olympic Games of 1936, 1952, 1956 and 1960. Another innovative factor at that time was to prescribe, in times close to important competitions, that training sessions for his runners be held on the track, where the competition would take place. This fact, as we know today, promoted a high level of functional adaptability of athletes to the specific demands of the desired performance, and for this reason, it seems, he can presumably be considered the first to highlight the need to observe the specificity of workloads in advanced periods of training. This detail, today, constitutes one of the pillars that support the organization of physical training with the objective of high sports performance.

 

    Another German coach who stood out during this period was Toni Nett, who already in 1940 postulated that it was essential for the success of athletes' preparation to plan and control the temporal distribution of training loads in relation to aspects such as: nature, magnitude, duration, orientation and organization thereof (Vretaros, 2024). His proposal in essence, complementing Tubino's publication (1985b), is detailed below:

1. Ordering and controlling all work systems to be experienced by the athlete, classifying them according to partial and final objectives to be achieved throughout the training, competition and rest season; and

2. Proposal of tables for quantitative and qualitative control of training loads.

    Although the first organizational conceptions of sports training do not originate from this period (Gimenez, 2024), since in ancient Greece the total time of physical training was divided into parts by applying three days of increasing workloads interspersed with a day of rest, which the Greeks called “tetras”, it can be suggested that Toni Nett was the precursor of periodization, due to the fact that it composes the organization of the athlete's total time available for training, establishing objectives to be achieved in the short, medium and long term, and thus obtaining an efficiency in training unimaginable for that time.

 

Czech trend of sports training 

 

    Around 1945, the contribution of Czech runner Emil Zatopeck was notable. Based on the already well-known method of coach Toni Nett, he gradually modified his way of training, promoting some changes in the original proposal of the aforementioned German, until developing his own method which, without giving up the recovery intervals between the distances run, according to Tubino (1985a) consisted of:

1. Use only the 200 and 400 meter distances;

2. Carrying out high-volume work, performing up to 70 repetitions of the recommended distances per training session; and

3. Use of a fixed 60-second interval for organic recovery between each repetition.

    Thus emerged interval training, with which Zatopeck surprised the sporting world of the time, establishing marks considered fantastic, despite today becoming obsolete to the point of being achieved with relative ease by many athletes.

 

Hungarian trend of sports training 

 

    In 1948, Mihaly Igloi, a Hungarian doctor and trainer, gained notoriety in the sports world for considering the fact that athletes, due to different hereditary conditions, should have their training loads strictly individualized. His training method was based on:

1. A daily workload of between 20 and 40 kilometers;

2. In respect of human biological individuality, training loads should be strictly individualized; and

3. Combine long-duration continuous runs with interval physical efforts.

    Today we know that this fact is the cornerstone on which any and all physical training processes must be built, and is now understood as a law to be followed to ensure the success of the prescription and control of physical training: “biological individuality” (Dantas, 1995). In other words, it can be said that even back then it was finally understood that, for physically different subjects, training loads should be differentiated. We consider that this period lasted from the 11th Olympics (Berlin 1936) to the 14th Olympics (London 1948).

 

The Scientific Period and its references 

 

    From the XIV Olympics (London -1948), to the XXI Olympics (Munich -1972) 

 

    This period began around 1950, and continued on the remnants of the previous period. There was a notable increase in the number of laboratories for scientific research on physical effort, among which the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory stood out, which promoted a significant advance in knowledge about physiology, biochemistry, biomechanics, among other knowledge relevant to the emerging science of sports training. Along with this growing range of information, in 1959 the Austrian researcher Hans Selye published his work describing the phenomenon of the “General Adaptation Syndrome - GAS”, a theory that encompasses the body’s reaction to different stimuli that are capable of causing adaptations or damage to it.  

 

    Based on this information, Russian scientist Leev Matveev developed the so-called modular cyclic periodization structure of training loads for high sports performance. It involved dividing the total training time into periods and phases, not only because, for biological reasons, athletes cannot be in optimal sports shape all the time, but also because periodic changes in the structure and content of training are a necessary condition for developing specific foundations established according to the needs of the sport and the athletes in training, through the consideration of preparation built on the interrelation of the volume and intensity of workloads.

 

    The periodization model proposed by Matveev was the first and caused a true revolution in the training organizational system (Cuco, 2024), giving rise, mainly from the 1970s onwards, to some other different periodization models, each with its own characteristics in terms of applicability, which makes them more viable for certain sports modalities or athletic events, to the detriment of others. The sports world at that time evolved rapidly, making it possible to perceive over its course, three trends in sports training: 1) Australian trend; 2) New Zealand trend; and 3) German trend.

 

Australian trend in sports training 

 

    In the early 1950s, after the end of World War II, the so-called Cold War began, with the world being politically divided into two blocs: the Western bloc, led by the United States and its allies; and the Eastern bloc, led by the Soviet Union and its satellite countries. Both blocs, in addition to a terrible arms race, sought by all possible means to demonstrate their supremacy in diverse fields: science, culture, military, space, and also sports.

 

    It is precisely in this last aspect that Australia begins a new era in the process of sports training. Percy Cerutty, an Australian coach who in 1952 went to the city of Helsinki, Finland to watch the 15th Olympic Games, and took the opportunity to meet the Swedish Gosta Holander to learn about his training system, “Valadalen training”. Back in Australia, he sought to adapt this methodology to the natural difficulties of the terrain in his country, choosing for this purpose a place on the ocean coast located between the cities of Melbourne and Portsea, with an approximate extension of 100 kilometers, where he structured a training center to serve Australian runners and those from other countries. His method basically consisted of:

1. Very intense, even exhausting, physical work;

2. Predominance of a large volume of training, with athletes covering up to 150 kilometers per week during the general preparation period, and 100 kilometers during the competition period. and

3. Using the sandy terrain of the beach, taking advantage of its dunes, seeking to acquire localized muscular resistance, for which the Americans and Germans used training on the race track.

    The argument used by Percy Cerutty was that by training in the dunes the athlete would be subjected to a greater effort than that required in a competition, thus developing a high level of physical condition, which would be caused by the suffering caused by working with these characteristics. Another interesting aspect is that the aforementioned coach was not in favor of interval training, since he considered it a system originating in the laboratory and whose results were not always in accordance with practice, and he also firmly defended that for runners to acquire general and specific resistance, it was necessary to perform prolonged physical work and never quick and brief efforts. (Hegedus, 1969a; Fernandes, 1981)

 

New Zealand sports training trend 

 

    In parallel with the work of Australian Percy Cerutty, New Zealand coach Arthur Lydiard sought to extract the positive aspects of interval and duration training, combining the two systems. Thus, according to his country's competition season, and possibly guided by the studies of German Tony Nett on the temporal distribution of training loads, he proposed dividing the training season into several sequenced work stages, in which he sought a specific competitive objective for each of them:

1. Post-competition stage: For 2 to 4 weeks after the competition season, this stage of training began with runners training 6 times a week on roads and in the woods, running for 1 hour at approximately 7 minutes per mile;

2. Stage of national cross-country competitions: For 12 weeks, the runner trained in a variety of terrain conditions (sand, mud, rocks, etc.) and in a variety of weather conditions. In the first half of the week, only gentle jogs were performed, and then the work was intensified, using distances ranging from 50 yards to a mile, reaching great distances, with the longest runs being held on Sundays;

3. Marathon Training Stage: This stage consisted of training aimed at achieving an average of up to 100 miles per week, with the greatest distance covered on Saturdays and at a slower pace than on previous days. The total number of kilometers to be completed during the week was distributed by alternating one day with a lighter load than the other, and with the intensity of the work varying according to the terrain to be used for the race, thus seeking the active organic regeneration of the athletes;

4. Training stage on varied terrain: It consisted of 6 weeks of training carried out in a space approximately 3,200 meters long, consisting of long inclines interspersed with flat sections and also descents, in which the athletes ran up to 20 kilometers per day at a wide variety of paces. At the end of the week, a training session lasting 2 to 2.5 hours was carried out;

5. Road training stage: Aiming at track competitions, in this stage the runners ran around 13 kilometers per day for 4 weeks, alternating long runs with short runs to acquire speed; and

6. Track training stage: Lasting 12 weeks, after completing all the previous stages, to prepare the athletes for the competition, training began on the race track.

    Lydiard did not use interval training because he considered the pauses too long, which he believed would not lead to results. He preferred to combine training with physical efforts of pure sprinting, prolonged sprinting and long distances. Thus, his middle-distance runners did as much prolonged sprinting as a middle-distance runner, and still the same number of kilometers as a long-distance runner.

 

German trend in sports training 

 

    Around 1952, the German coach Woldemar Gerschller established a trend that was completely contrary to the continuous methods adopted by the Czech, Australian and New Zealand trends in sports physical preparation. Based on the interval training model practiced, assisted by Herbert Heindel, Helmut Roskamm and Joseph Keul, he carried out several clinical-medical investigations observing the physiological changes that occurred in athletes subjected to different variations of this form of work, and he modified this method again, proposing:

1. Use only distances of 100 to 200 meters;

2. Increase the number of repetitions of runs;

3. In addition to controlling the intensity of the effort, it also controlled the athletes' heart rate during intervals that lasted around 45 to 60 seconds, with the subjects walking or lying down.

    This new strategy was used to train several middle-distance runners who became world record holders at the time, such as Rudolf Harbirg, Gordon Pirie and Roger Noens, and it was thus confirmed that the most important thing in interval training is the benefit produced during the pauses, and not necessarily, as previously thought, during the efforts. From this physiological discussion, the method began to gain scientific recognition and these intermediate phases between each effort were called “active pauses”, or also “advantageous pauses”.

 

    During this period, it became clear that, in addition to the emergence of several training methods with physiological bases, such as: cross-country, marathon training, power training, cross-promenade, aerobics, hypoxing training, among others, several other systemic concepts of physical training for high performance were announced in different parts of the world. In this regard, the Belgian military cavalry officer and former Olympic athlete who participated in Berlin (1936) and London (1948), Raoul Mollet, stood out. In 1963, he was the first to consider high sports performance as being a phenomenon dependent on the integration of bio-psycho-social and kinesiological variables, perfectly organized among themselves and integrated with the environment, thus establishing what he called “Total Training”.

 

    In addition to this new understanding, Mollet created the “cross-promenade” training system, which, like the “cross-country” method, should also be carried out in woods and trails as they are natural environments that facilitate the creation of an excellent psychological state in the runner, which essentially consisted of:

1. Apply 3 training sessions per week, each lasting between 40 and 90 minutes;

2. In addition to walking, include educational exercises for running, breathing exercises and even balancing and rolling to increase joint mobility;

3. Combine continuous runs of 4 to 6 minutes and intervals of low and moderate intensity, respectively, with localized physical exercises (isometric and isotonic) and joint mobility (stretching and flexibility), which should be performed at the beginning, middle and end of the session; and

4. Use a route of approximately 3 km with varied terrain and many natural obstacles.

    Mollet sought to combine exercises for the simultaneous development of several physical qualities in a single work session, and recommended that his method be used mainly at the beginning of training, when seeking a basic functional condition, and also in the weakest training session of the week.

 

    Since then, and to this day, it has become clear that in the world of high-performance sports, control of every detail can act as a catalyst for positive results and make the difference between sporting success and failure (Cabral, 2024), with the athlete subjecting himself to deprivation and sacrifices throughout his life to ensure high motor performance, dedicating a large part of his availability to physical, mental, social and nutritional training, to ensure the optimization of his sporting performance. (Quinta, 2024)

 

    Another important event of this period took place in 1948, in the English city of Stoke Mandeville, when the German doctor Ludwig Guttmann, then director of the British National Trauma Centre, an institution created to treat the rehabilitation of English soldiers injured in the Second World War, decided to create a sporting event exclusively for the physically disabled. Initially called the “Stoke Mandeville International Games”, from 1952 onwards it also began to receive athletes from other countries and, in 1960, it began to be organized outside England, with the Italian city of Rome, that year hosting the XVII Olympics, becoming the first location for what are now the Paralympic Games.

 

    This change in the conception of sports practice was caused by an intellectual movement that brought together thinkers, researchers and sports professionals at an international level, reaching an intensity capable of imposing on the world, based on the assumption that sports are a universal right for all, an expanded and unrestricted perception of the scope of the social dimension of sports. In this regard, Bento (1998) and Azevedo, & Gomes Filho (2011) state that institutionalized and disciplined sports competitions result in positive-sum arrangements, allowing sports to become a life choice, thus favoring inclusion.

 

    We postulate that this period began with the XIV Olympics (London 1948), ending with the XXI Olympics (Munich 1972), when the use of computers for timing and also for photographing the finish line in athletics and swimming events was recorded for the first time, as well as the biomechanical studies carried out for the technical analysis of the race of the Italian sprinter Pietro Menéa and the German swimmer Mark Spitz, two Olympic phenomena of the time whose athletic results in that Olympics remained untouched until recently.

 

The Scientific-Technological Period and its references

 

    From the XXI Olympics (Munich 1972), to the XXV Olympics (Barcelona 1948) 

 

    After the scientific period ended, the understanding that high athletic performance is considered a complex multifactorial process increased even further, and, therefore, the sports preparation system must be organized in a holistic biopsychosocial way (Stone, 2021; McClean et all, 2024). In other words, it is known that the harmonious cohesion of the spheres: biological, motor, cognitive, cultural, affective, social, family and spiritual, form the holistic sports interpretation. (Vretaros, 2024)

 

    Thus, a process of major changes quickly began in the world of high-performance sports, mainly due to the emergence of new competition calendars, which required a broad discussion on new proposals to select the new challenges that this situation imposed on the organization of training. Thus, there were criticisms of the current and practiced periodization models, and through applied, technological and basic research, several other strategies for prescribing and controlling training emerged, given the need to guide the decisions of professionals in the area towards the new directions imposed. (Martins, 2024)

 

    Since then, the sporting results, which were already noticeably improving, have been even more so, due not only to the emergence of different scientifically based training methodologies, but also to the evolution of technology in the manufacture of equipment used and the production of athletes' clothing for training and competitions. These aspects were initially combined with the growing political interest of some socialist countries in high-performance sport, given the understanding that it was an effective means of political propaganda. Later, Western countries understood and responded promptly to the challenge, so much so that in defense of political ideas, nations began to invest millions in the preparation of their representative athletes, which has since been evidenced by the astonishing results obtained in international competitions.

 

    It can be assumed that all this technology discussed above, which has not stopped being developed via scientific knowledge acquired from research, provided at the time, as suggested by Cavalheiro, & Benattlo (2024), all the support to promote the potentialization of constant and growing improvements in results in competitive sports, especially due to the existence of demand for personalized professional intervention, which allowed for very special results. (Baptista, 2024)

 

    Obviously, it is necessary to consider the high and increasing financial cost that this entire process generated, and still generates, since in the modern science of physical preparation the application of material technological resources in the morphofunctional and psychological diagnosis of individuals is notorious, as well as in the planning, prescription and control of workloads, and also in the correction of technical gestures and tactical analysis of competition situations, which in many cases involves, in addition to sophisticated material, also the use of artificial intelligence. (Barreto, Brasil, & Nahim Júnior, 2024)

 

    We postulate that this period was marked by 4 trends in sports training: 1) Saxon trend; 2) Socialist trend; 3) Western-European trend; and 4) Asian trend.

 

Saxon trend of sports training 

 

    The United States was the leader, followed by Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, countries in which elementary and high schools still have excellent material and human resources for sports practice and guidance in general, respectively. In these countries, universities were the main source of research, and within the most sophisticated technological conditions of the time, to offer full support in the development of their athletes, who received in return, in addition to studies at the university itself, also guidance from the best sports coaches in the country, as well as using state-of-the-art technology and sports equipment. (Fernandes, 1981; Tubino, 1985b)

 

Socialist trend in sports training 

 

    Led by the former Soviet Union, it encompassed all other countries in the socialist bloc, where the State had complete responsibility for sports development, directing children from a very early age towards sports activities that would give them the greatest chance of success in the future, in a process that can be called a “sports expectations plan” today. These countries had, like the capitalist trend, important scientific research centers focused on sports science, and in addition to guidance from the best sports technicians in the country, they also used high-level technology and sports equipment. (Fernandes, 1981; Tubino, 1985b; Dantas, 1985)

 

Western European trend in sports training 

 

    Led by the former West Germany, it included France, Italy, Spain, New Zealand, Sweden and other non-socialist European countries, and its main characteristic was the technical-scientific exchange facilitated by the geographical location of the European countries. According to Fernandes (1981) and Tubino (1985a), Brazil and other Latin American countries benefited greatly from technical internships carried out in some of its various training centers, mainly those located in the German cities of Cologne and Mainz, in addition to others in other countries that supported its doctrine.

 

Asian trend in sports training 

 

    Among its component countries, Japan, South Korea and China stood out. In these countries, in addition to strict educational planning, sports received enormous financial support from the numerous industries there, with factories being represented by sports teams from the most varied modalities, with emphasis, of course, on the most popular ones. The most striking characteristic of this trend is that, although culture was used as a means of motivation and the main centers of scientific research were located, as in the Saxon trend, also in universities, at that time the capitalist aspects so present in the world of sports today were already evident. (Fernandes, 1981; Tubino, 1985b)

 

The Scientific-Technological - Mercantilist Period and its references 

 

    Since the XXV Olympics (Barcelona 1992) 

 

    For some years now, sport has undoubtedly become one of the most efficient products for publicizing the name and brand of its advertisers and/or sponsors, given the possibility of quickly approaching their customers on a global scale and effectively opposing their competitors. This statement is based on Neto (1986), who states that the success transmitted by sport to its participants is unconsciously attributed to the companies that promote it and, no less importantly, to their products.

 

    Thus, there is currently no longer any reluctance about the emergence of sports-spectacle which, through the advertising of products associated with the image of those who practice it, focuses on generating financial values ​​(Pereira, 2022). It is clear that when properly planned, investing in competitive sports has consolidated itself as a business with excellent returns in terms of publicity, image improvement and great tax advantages, granting stratospheric financial profits to all parties involved in this dynamic process (athletes, companies, coaches, managers, businessmen, among others).

 

    Thus, the relationship of interdependence that the evolutionary periods of sports training continually establish among themselves is evident, through their main characteristics, increasingly admitting that modern technologies that support and complement the current state of athlete preparation, and which continue to be developed via scientific knowledge, especially acquired from research that, in order to be developed and continue providing the necessary support to promote constant and growing improvements in results in competitive sports, require high financial resources.

 

    It is within this approach that companies have become interested in the institutional promotion of sports, associating their names with it, escaping the absolutism of socialist countries where the State is responsible for all expenses related to the sports training of its athletes. This consolidates today, regardless of social and economic conditions, political options, traditions, or even geographical positions, the existence of only two major methodological orientations of sports training: a) Capitalist tendency; and b) Socialist tendency.

 

Capitalist trend in sports training 

 

    Its components are the capitalist countries of the world, regardless of their geopolitical situation, with sports institutions, mainly those legally organized and with great social projection, almost always subsidized by companies that offer broad support to athletes in the form of considerable salaries and other financial advantages.

 

    In this trend of Sports Training, sports in general occupy a considerable space on the agendas of governments, also of private institutions, and of others with a sporting/educational nature (Rocha et al., 2020; Hong et al., 2022), which, through tax breaks and exemptions, contribute significantly to the financing of sports policies (Broietti, 2024). Universities, as in the previous period, are the main source of research through the creation of institutional study groups and scientific journals, which generate important databases (Cadavid et al., 2021; Marques et al., 2021), in addition to the organization of specific scientific events (Meetings, Seminars, Congresses, etc.), which greatly contributes to the visibility and consolidation of the theme. (Rocha et al., 2021)

 

    Its most striking characteristic is that sports competitions become true spectacles, regardless of their professional or pseudo-amateur level, in which companies interested in promoting their products use multiple promotional strategies and invest considerable budgets, in some cases millions, to finance the individual preparation of athletes or teams, who are considered true stars, as well as promoting their products during competitions and even managing some sporting events.

 

Socialist trend in sports training 

 

    It encompasses the countries of the socialist bloc of the modern world, where the state has complete responsibility for the development of the individual, including sports, from the initial grades of school age. The basis of this trend is the government regime that, through absolute dirigisme, hands over to the state the comprehensive education of children from the earliest age. Of these nations, only China remains among the world's sports powers, which is due to the fact that it has a socialism based on state-owned companies and focused on a strong market economy, therefore “differentiated”. All the other countries find their sports results in frank decline due to an absolute lack of resources to finance the complex and dynamic preparation of their athletes for high sports performances.

 

Discussion 

 

    This study aimed to answer how political-ideological and economic contexts influenced the transition between training systems. The findings confirm that the evolution of sports training is not merely a biological or methodological progression, but a phenomenon deeply intertwined with global events.

 

Relationship with previous studies 

 

    In comparison to previous models established by Costa (1972) and Tubino (1985a), which broadly categorized early training, our proposed seven-period chronological matrix offers a more granular view of the transition into the modern era. While earlier studies focused heavily on the physiological advancements (such as Matveev's periodization), this study highlights the shift towards what we define as "sports mercantilism" starting from 1992.

 

Limitations of the study 

 

    The primary limitation of this research is its reliance on secondary historical sources and narrative review structures, which may be subject to the interpretive bias of the documented authors regarding the efficacy of older training methods (such as the empiricism of ancient Rome and Greece).

 

Practical implications and pedagogical proposal 

 

    To bridge this historical analysis with practical application, we propose an educational framework for sports science curricula.

 

Description 

 

    A modular teaching strategy integrating history with methodological training.

 

    Structure: The curriculum is divided into three analytical blocks: (1) Empirical to Pre-Scientific, (2) Scientific to Sci-Tech, and (3) Mercantilistic.

 

Implementation phases 

 

    Phase 1 involves historical case studies of Olympic cycles. Phase 2 requires students to map training ruptures (e.g., the introduction of interval training). Phase 3 challenges students to critically analyze the modern financial dependency of high performance.

 

Resources 

 

    Implementation requires access to digital sports history databases, basic biomechanical analysis tools to recreate historical training loads, and multidisciplinary collaboration with history and management departments. Future research should empirically test how understanding this historical chronology improves the critical thinking of physical education professionals.

 

Conclusion 

 

    Based on the narrative presented, it is concluded that:

1. Sports training has transitioned from empirical military practices to a complex scientific-technological system.

2. The Olympic Games serve as the primary catalyst for methodological changes, reflecting the political and economic tensions of each era.

3. Mercantilism is the current paradigm, where high performance is inseparable from high financial investment and global marketing.

4. Biological individuality and technological rigor remain the pillars of modern prescription, now enhanced by digital literacy and data science.

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Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, Vol. 31, Núm. 338, Jul. (2026)